University of Zambia Medical Library

HIV/AIDS in Zambia: October 1997

"Beauty of New Care Condom"
Times of Zambia: October 18, 1997

The Society for Family Health (SFH) yesterday explained that the recently introduced female condom can be inserted anytime and not eight hours before sex. SFH media and public affairs specialist, Mpundu Mwanza said in Lusaka yesterday that the female condom also had the advantage that the couple did not have to interrupt foreplay to insert the sheath. Miss Mwanza said the condom branded 'Care' was different from the male condom which had a restriction that it must be worn just before sex and required a man to have an erection. "It is not a must that the female condom should be inserted eight hours before making love, Care female condom can be inserted anytime before sex," she said.

In another development, the SFH yesterday condemned proponents of the theory that condoms encourage immorality and are not an effective method against the spread of HIV/AIDS. Miss Mwanza said the adverse effects of HIV/AIDS only become apparent many years after infection. "Condoms may have been introduced on the market but how many people were already infected before they started practicing safer sex or using condoms? "How many people felt the need and personal vulnerability to the disease, a compassion for those infected and a concern to protect others they love from contracting it?" she asked. Miss Mwanza said because of HIV's long incubation period, even if the spread of the infection stopped today, more deaths would occur for several years. She said abstinence was the best method of protection and if one wanted to have sex, he or she should have it with one faithful partner. If one could not abstain or stick to one faithful partner, a condom was the alternative.

"Party Condemns Condom Use"
Times of Zambia: October 17, 1997

THE Unity Party for Democrats (UPD) is totally against the use of condoms which was on Monday encouraged by Health Deputy Minister Nkandu Luo when she launched a new female condom. The party has also asked Government to rescind its decision to allow pregnant school girls to return to school after giving birth. The party's general secretary, Edwin Zulu said in an interview in Lusaka yesterday it was unfortunate that Government could so blatantly support immorality and promiscuity in a Christian nation.

"We are totally against the launching or use of condoms because these will only encourage immorality and promiscuity. These are a catalyst for fornication, adultery, homosexuality, incest and child abuse," he said. Mr Zulu said the condoms were not even protecting people from diseases as evidenced by the increased number of deaths from such diseases. He said the church, political parties and other interested groups should concentrate on educating the masses about the importance of having one sexual partner. On Wednesday, Professor Luo launched a new condom for women at which she emphasised those who could not abstain from sex should use condoms.

On the school going mothers, Mr Zulu wondered whether these would get married after completion of their education as some of them would have more than three children.

"Luo Defends Condoms" by Reuben Phiri
The Post: October 16, 1997

The government is not promoting promiscuity by supporting use of condoms, health deputy minister Nkandu Luo said yesterday. Luo, officially launching the Society for Family Health's (SFH) female condom at Lusaka's Hotel Intercontinental, said those people who think the Ministry of Health is encouraging promiscuity by promoting condoms must face reality.

"We need to accept that there is something amiss in our society and we need to recap on that," Luo said. She disclosed that 25 per cent of the women attending ante-natal clinics in urban areas and 13 per cent in rural areas were found with sexually transmitted diseases. "Using the female condom is likely to require the cooperation of both partners but it is a method a woman can control, can insert herself before intercourse, and can obtain without the intervention of a health care provider," Luo said, adding that women in Zambia have always cried at different fora that they do not have adequate tools to protect themselves.

United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) country programme advisor Bernadette Olowo-Freers, speaking at the same function, said out of 9 million women in the world infected with HIV/AIDS last year 80 per cent got the disease through unprotected sex. "The female condom will provide extra protection to both men and women and give more control over their bodies," Olowo-Freers said.

The female condom will be available at the University Teaching Hospital, various pharmacies, hair salons, Non-Government Organisations and several other outlets where they can easily be accessed at a nominal cost. Other contraceptive products already on the market from Society for Family Health are the Maximum Condoms and Prolact Foaming tablets.

A lecturer at the University of Botswana, according to Sabanews, says any society which supports subordination of women and tolerates male violence will have difficulties to deal with AIDS. Tirelo Moroka, who teaches social work, says the socialisation of women is a major factor in the high rate of infection of HIV, the AIDS virus, in Botswana. She says in their quest to stay in relationships, women sacrifice and compromise for the benefit of others. The academic also attributes the spread of AIDS to physical and sexual violence sweeping Botswana because both the perpetrator and the victim do no have a chance for protection. She says the culture of labour migration has also brought about multiple relationships, where people acquire town partners while they continue with ties in other parts of the country. Mrs. Moroka says the spread of HIV is also due to job transfers, illegal immigration and long-distance drivers. The Botswana academic was speaking during an AIDS awareness day at one of the country's leading mines, Jweneng.

"Female Condom: Editorial Comment"
The Post: October 16, 1997

The government in general, and health minister Katele Kalumba and his deputy Nkandu Luo in particular, deserve much credit for their promotion of the use of condoms. HIV/AIDS is no longer a myth but a reality that we all have to learn to live with. AIDS affects and concerns all of us - from the highest citizen (the President) to the lowest one (a prisoner).

Very few Zambian families have not lost a dear one through AIDS. We all know someone very close to us who has died from AIDS. AIDS has not spared even ministers, judges and parliamentarians. We have moving skeletons in cabinet and Parliament. The newsrooms have equally not been spared. We have lost many journalists as a result of AIDS. Medical doctors have perished from this deadly disease. Even Catholic priests and nuns have died from AIDS. Even some of those who have campaigned against the use of condoms have died from AIDS. And about 22 million people worldwide are said to be living either with the HIV virus or with full-blown AIDS. Another 6 million people have died of AIDS-related diseases.

Scientists tell us that there is no real cure that has been discovered to date. This week one of the scientists credited with the discovering of the AIDS virus, HIV, says a proper vaccine for the killer disease is still a long way off. Condoms are certainly not the only way to prevent AIDS. Sticking to one uninfected partner can help too. Total abstinence is another. Choose what suits you and follow it through consistently. Promoting the use of condoms is not encouraging promiscuity. Everything that will help us save lives should be tried. Preaching morality will save some but not all. Morality has been preached ever since creation but people are still sinful or immoral.

In the same way, condoms can save all from AIDS but not all will comply. The introduction of the female condom will certainly save more lives. Women will nolonger be totally at mercy of men over the use of condoms. As Luo correctly pointed out using the female condom is likely to require the cooperation of both partners but it is a method a woman can control, can insert herself before intercourse, and can obtain without the intervention of a health care provider. The female condom will certainly provide extra protection to both men and women. Sex is sweet, and it may be even sweeter without a condom, but are you prepared to die for it?

"Early Marriages Irk Family Group"
Daily Mail: October 11, 1997

The Family Life Movement of Zambia has expressed concern at early marriages among girls in the country. Movement represetantive, Ms Mwape Lubilo, said in Kabwe yesterday that early marriages were exposing adolescents to pregnancy, child-bearing and diseases and even HIV/AIDS. Ms Lubilo made this remark in a paper on child, adolescent and youth development which she presented to the five-day workshop discussing populations, gender and development advocancy at the Central Province Cooperative Union (CPCU) Motel in Kabwe. She told particpants mostly provincial heads form government departments that it was sad that some 10-year-old girls have gone into marriages due to economic hardships.

"Early marriage is an issue calling for urgent discussion. The statutory law indicates legal marriage age at 18 years, while on the contrary, the customary law pegs it at attainment of puberty," Ms Lubilo explained. She said the customary law encouraged early marriages among children, exposing them to frequent child bearing and STD and HIV/AIDS. There was urgent need to harmonise the statutory and customary laws in order to protect the girl child. "About 31 percent of the 15 - 19 age group have either given birth or are pregnant for the first time," she said.

On abortion, Ms Lubilo said available data indicated that inaccessibility to legal and safe abortions was a major cause of maternal mortality. While friends, elders and sometimes herbalists are expected to help in inducing abortions, recent data indicated that young people could induce an abortion themselves. "A study conducted in four districts in Western Province indicates that 12 percent of females in the age group 11 to 19 had already experienced an illegal abortion without seeking any form of help," she said. She recommended that post abortion counselling be strengthened so that whoever aborted was encourageds to take up family planning to avoid unwanted pregnancies in future.

In 1992, aboutr 11 percent of pregnant women attending ante-natal clinics tested positive for syphilis and this increased chances of HIV contraction. Ms Lubilo said 17 out of 1,000 people had an STD such as gonorrhoea, syphilis, herpes, candidiais and charncord. - ZANA.

"Gatherings Recipe for AIDS Spread"
The Times of Zambia October 9. 1997

Villagers gatherings where men and women spend some days and night are potential places for the spread of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV-AIDS, Central Province AIDS programme coordinator, Mr Alfred Haamalambo has said. Addressing participants to the five-day workshop on population, gender and development advocacy at the CPCMU motel in Kabwe, Mr Haamalambo said that the spread of STD and HIV infections was rife in areas where there was concentration of people Mr Haamalambo said some people with weak morals, be they Christians or not attending music festivals and church meetings tend to misuse their temporary freedom from their homes, engage in sexual promiscuity and end up contracting one of the dreaded diseases.

"We have observed that the number of STD and HIV cases go up after such meetings. Some people have confessed that they contracted the diseases after having misbehaved at such gatherings," he said. A participant wondered whether churches were serving any purpose with such frightening reports. Mr Haamalambo explained that the elite was more inflicted with the dreaded disease than illiterates, because of their travels outside stations and abroad. He also said educated people suffered from psychology of trusting their fellow educated partners of being free from such diseases.

Kapiri Mposhi and Serenje districts recorded the highest incidents of STD and HIV/AIDS in the province because they shared Tazara corridor and the line of rail. Discussing the 1997 HIV/AIDS prevalence in the province, Mr Haamalambo said out of 34 admissions in the seven hospitals, about 80 died, while 26 were discharged. The ratio was one man inflicted as against six women. The trend was that young girls got the disease than boys of the same age, but the situation changed as the age advanced to more than 40 when more males become sick than females. On unplanned pregnancies arising from rape and defilement of helpless girl-child and retarded girls and women, the workshop said such victims should seek medical and police advice about legal implications to terminate pregnancy. It was noted that 1972 termination of pregnancy Act demanded that three doctors should approve the abortion, but it was easy to obtain those signatures. A participant from the Zambia Police support victims said education programmes would be launched to sensitise women about services offered to the community.

"UNFPA to Spend US$10 Million on Reproductive Health."
Zambia Today, Electronic News from Zambia : October 7, 1997

The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) plans to spend US$10,1 million in Zambia on promotion of reproductive health, population and development issues from 1997 to 2001. UNFPA representative, Naomi Kitahara, announced in Kabwe that the funds were being sought from the agency's regular sources. She was addressing participants to the five-day workshop on population, gender and development advocacy at the Co-operative Motel in Kabwe. She said out of the total budget US$6,5 million would go to the reproductive health programme; US$2,6 million on population and development strategies and US$1 million on advocacy.

The project was a programme of action and development held in Cairo, Egypt in September 1994. "We are waiting for UNFPA to approve the funding before December this year so that we can embark on the implementation of the programme which is aimed at improving health status of Zambians leading to sustainable human development," Ms Kitahara told participants drawn from various government departments as well as Non-Governmental Organisations from Lusaka and Central Province.

The programme would include education on family planning, sexual health, STD, HIV and AIDS, infertility and abortition. Both government and NGOD would be involved in the developing sub-programmes and implementation. Ms Kitahara also said there would be training of manpower and research, while information, education and communication would play a vital role in the whole exercise.

"Ever Heard of the Commonwealth Young Positive" by Bwalya Nondo
Times of Zambia: October 6, 1997

Ever heard of the Commonwealth young positive living ambassadors? They are an army of young men and women in Africa, infected with the virus that causes AIDS. Three years ago, the first ever regional Commonwealth Youth Programme (CYP) workshop on HIV/AIDS, took place in Zambia. It brought together more than 30 young people, from 13 commonwealth African countries. Participants were those who had succumbed to the virus that causes the deadliest ailment of the century.

Heated debate a course about myths and realities surrounding the incurable disease, the workshop was convened, vitally, to loin-up, AIDS sufferers and carriers with techniques on positive living. It was from here that, the young positive living ambassadors were scrolled to the cards. Next they hoped onto the bandwagon to begin a crusade. That of exchanging personal experiences with peers and public awareness by fostering the concept of positive living. Another focus was overrunning the stigma associated with those living with the virus in communities by encouraging open discussion of HIV/AIDS. From this spills minimal prejudice.

The positive living ambassadors who have been globe-trotting, have been powerful megaphones, beaming messages on HIV/AIDS. They have been telling their peers and the world at large one thing; Despite living with the virus that causes AIDS, the world has not come to an end. One can still lead a useful and productive life. Good health practices and constructive behaviour are underlined as catalytic to positive living by the infected. The ambassadors of positive living programme's darts have sunk deep. With an outreach campaign for those at high risk, hitting the right chord, the programme has seen 12 Ambassadors visiting over 10 countries in Africa on their mission.

"In literally all countries visited, there has been acknowledgment by health educators, senior officials from ministries responsible for youth affairs, school teachers, religious leaders as well as young men and women themselves, that meeting face to face with HIV positive young persons, telling their stories, is a powerful strategy in overcoming the rigid stereotypes, associated with HIV/AIDS," notes CYP Regional Director Richard Mkandawire.

The summation of the activities that the Ambassadors have reckoned to their record go as follows; Interacting and talking to youngmen and women in schools, universities military barracks, church organisations, mosques and youth clubs, Discussing HIV/AIDS in the media and publicly, as one way of achieving integration and acceptance of young men and women living with the virus, Giving a sense of assurance and empathy as well as comfort, to the infected by sharing personal and country experiences, Formation of HIV/AIDS youth networks or support groups where they do not exist, dialogue with youth officials to create increased visibility of HIV/AIDS youth concerns within ministries or departments responsible for youth affairs with national AIDS control and prevention programmes, Facilitating linkages and dialogue between ministries or departments responsible for youth affairs with national AIDS control and prevention programmes.

Although the young positive living ambassadors' programme, has been afloat, with success stories filling the pouch, a few hiccups have been noted. Important experiences on how young people living with HIV/AIDS have been utilised as peers educators have not been authentically and systematically documented and shared by young people. What then?

At a time when the lethal sting of the deadly viral disease is raging fiercely than ever before, CYP has decided to shepherd back to the paddock, the young positive living Ambassadors. New corps of positive living sufferers who are potential members of the "roving HIV/AIDS ambassadors" are expected to be in attendance at the regional workshop. Here, commonwealth young positive Ambassadors will share experiences on issues of common ground, at the CYP. Doors to the workshop, swing open this week. It will pull participants from Zambia, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Malawi, Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya. Others will come from Namibia, Lesotho and Mozambique. The latter is interacting with CYP for the first time. Botswana and South Africa described by Prof. Mkandawire as interesting 'models' on HIV/AIDS and sexuality, will join the workshop too. An ambassador from Botswana nicknamed mama condom (and she fondly jokes about it) has ripples of humour to let out about the condom, at the workshop. Her South African counterpart has something to tell about being a lesbian - "And she's very frank about it," . . . the words of Prof. Mkandawire.

Sierra-Leone has been eclipsed from the workshop. The junta's governance record has cost the West African nation alienation. Paucity of information on HIV/AIDS for a number of young people, especially those in rural areas, has been identified as a missing kernel in the eye of the HIV/AIDS awareness process. Prof Mkandawire says, clearly, there is a thirst for information on HIV/AIDS. He adds, the current flow of information may not be reaching the majority of young people.

Here is the professor: "Presently even where information may exist on HIV/AIDS circumstances deny people living with HIV/AIDS access to it. Not only are some people living with HIV/AIDS unable to comprehend the highly technical information on the subject, but in many instances, health professionals do not even recognise young people with HIV/AIDS as an important clientele. So there is no deliberate effort to target and tailor information to meet young people's concerns on HIV/AIDS". He said while young people living with HIV/AIDS had proven to be effective, peer educators have even managed to raise HIV/AIDS awareness, they had been operating like "prophets" in the wilderness. This he argued, was because young people had not been integrated into HIV/AIDS prevention, care and mitigation programmes.

Their expertise too, has not won recognition. Their skills have not been utilised by appropriate institutions. As the workshop plots course, positive living Ambassadors will explore howbest their work could be integrated into existing national AIDS prevention programmes, care and mitigation programmes, for the good of other young people-infected or otherwise. Factors that have seemingly 'disinclined' the work of the Ambassadors will be brought to public view. They will then be reviewed. Among other things, the workshop will explore how Ambassadors of positive living can knit links with donor and development agencies like UNDP.

Participants will examine elements for strengthening the Ambassadors of positive living and forge the way forward. The workshop will be inter-spaced and punctuated with testimonial tales from people living with HIV. Technical experts with papers relating to HIV/AIDS, will also take to the podium. From here, one more ounce of vigour, tack and skill will be amassed. This will enrich the Ambassadors of positive living to face the fight against AIDS squarely to the last inch.

"Meheba Refugee AIDS Counselling Body Thanks Lusaka NGO"
The Daily Mail: October 4,1997

A non-governmental organisation based in Lusaka has been praised by Meheba Refugees HIV/AIDS Counselling Group for financing a seminar in Meheba refugee camp on HIV/AIDS awareness campaign. Speaking to Zambia Information Services in Solwezi yesterday, Meheba refugees HIV/AIDS Counselling Group co-ordinator David Kawina, flanked by his treasurer Harry Mulungu, praised a Californian non-governmental organisation - Project Concern International based in Lusaka - for financing a four-day HIV/AIDS Awareness seminar for 31 participants at Meheba Secondary School.

Mr Kawina also thanked Project Concern International for providing 300 HIV/AIDS educative leaflets and 10 posters which were distributed to the general public in Meheba. Mr Kawina also appealed to all non-governmental organisations and business houses to provide bicycles to the 33 HIV/AIDS councillors to enable them reach most people in Meheba refugee camp which is 720 kilometres from Lusaka conducting AIDS education, aimed at increasing awareness among the Zambian people. He lamented that most people interviewed in Meheba refugee camp were not aware of the HIV/AIDS pandemic and amongst those interviewed, the majority did not even know how to use a condom.

Mr Kawina appealed to the Maximum Condom Social Marketing Department to visit Meheba refugee camp to show a series of video shows on the importance of using condoms as one way to prevent the spread of the deadly AIDS disease and HIV infection. He also revealed that the population of Meheba regugee camp was mostly composed of youths and women who were a vulnerable group - sexually active. Therefore, he said, there was need to train more HIV/AIDS counsellors to educate the people in preventive measures and avoid the spread of HIV/AIDS.

"AIDS Victims: Should They Go Public?" by Newton Sibanda
The Daily Mail: October 1, 1997

"When I first went public about my HIV status, people were saying I was paid a lot of money to come out in the open. These are some of the dangers of going public about your status", said Dipuo Bogatsu of Botswana at an ongoing workshop in Lusaka. Several HIV-positive people in the Southern region and other parts of Africa have converged at the Commonwealth Youth Programme Africa Centre in Lusaka to brainstorm their experiences. They are working under the Commonwealth Youth HIV ambassador programme, initiated by the Commonwealth Youth Centre in 1993. The main objective of the programme is to get actively involved in anti-AIDS campaigns.

Catherine Nyirenda, a Zambian, who has announced her sero-positivity cautioned those going public to assess the dangers of their action before doing so. "Going public is a personal decision. If you think it is not good for you to go public, it is better not to," says Ms Nyirenda. These mixed views have characterised the raging debate on going public about one's HIV status given the response from society. Winston Zulu, one of the first Zambians to go public about their HIV status was accused of having been paid. Some skeptics thought he was not positive. Many others have suffered similar rebuke.

Clement Mfuzi, another Zambian who has gone public, says HIV positive people should normalise their situations by going public and contribute to the fight against the scourge. Mr Mfuzi says HIV positive people should fight systems that marginalise them. "The issue of going public is inexhaustive. In our own countries, we must fight systems that marginalise us, systems that do not want to recognise us as normal people," says Mr Mfuzi. He adds: "We can normalise the system by going public. Of course we are positive but we are normal people."

Martin Chisulo, a potential Zambian HIV ambassador feels going public is a good idea and a more effective way of campaigning against the spread of the disease. "When I was diagnosed HIV positive in 1995, I told my family and they have accepted me because I wondered how long I could go on hiding my status. I have been going round spearheading AIDS awareness. "As a potential living ambassador, I feel going public is a very good thing," Mr Chisulo says. Mr Chisulo is involved in anti-AIDS campaigns with a Lusaka-based organisation, Kara Counselling.

Milly Naura, of Uganda says she was also accused of having been paid a lot of money by a Ugandan non-governmental organisation (NGO) known as The AIDS Support Organisation (TASO), but her action was later accepted. "Many people thought I was paid a lot of money by TASO but surprisingly they used to see me with the same clothes. There was no change to show that I had a lot of money, Ms Naura says, adding: "With time, people realised that I was not gaining anything by going public about my HIV status.

Margaret Naris, of Namibia believes that going public on HIV depends on the country one lives in and that it is difficult in societies which still want to use other excuses for AIDS-related deaths. "There are people coming out in the open but society does not accept them. It is difficult in societies where the cause of deaths is still being hidden but much depends on the country," says Ms Naris. Despite these odds against HIV positive people who are determined to prevent the spread of the disease by going public, hope is not lost. There are many others who feel it is extremely important to do so.

Richard Serukuma, another Ugandan, who went public in 1988, says it is a good idea to go public, adding that much needs to be done to make the atmosphere conducive for people to open up. He says people living with HIV/AIDS in Uganda have been widely accepted because a good atmosphere has been created.

The workshop drew participants from Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Cameroun. "Our emphasis has been on HIV young people who may be interested in peer education, but we can use other people who are not HIV positive," CYP Africa Centre Regional Director Professor Richard Mkandawire said. The importance of HIV ambassadors overrides the concerns of misconceptions that some people are being paid to go public on their sero-positivity.

"Workshop on Teen Sexuality and Premature Pregnancy"
HEALTH-L: October 1, 1997

REAL DANGERS:
AIDS, epidemic levels of sexually transmitted diseases and pre-mature pregnancy constitute serious threats to the health and well being of sexually active teens in Zambia today. Consequences of infection may include sterility among women, damage to babies of pregnant women, and -in the case of HIV infection-incurable disease and death. Many parents and teachers in our country today wish their children or students would realize" This could happen to me."

It is unfortunate that the power of the entertainment media is not mobilised to discourage the sexual activity that puts many young people at risk for infection with HIV and other STDs- or atleast to show the real potential consequences. Many have given up any hope of resisting western popular culture, assuming that all or most teens are sexually active, and that it is futile to attempt to change teen behaviour in response to real danger.

REAL PREVENTION:
Although many teens are "doing it", many of those who have sex usually regret it and always wish they had waited. Even those labelled sexually active can - and do - stop if they received more support. Unfortunately, many educational programmes assume teen sex is inevitable and merely seek to modify teen sexual behaviour. The disappointing results of such programmes, at least in other countries, have spawned a new interest in developing approaches that provide a more direct, abstinence-centered message. Research indicates that this kind of approach can be very effective.

FREE TEENS: A PROGRAM WITH BALANCE
One of such programmes is the FREE TEENS programme of USA founded by Richard Panzer. The Free Teens programme was founded in 1989. It is an intensive HIV/AIDS, STD and pregnancy prevention programme used in 7th through 12 th grade health classes, youth clubs and churches. So far this programme is used in 38 countries in the USA, as well as Canada, Latin America, Africa, Europe, and Asia. It has been approved by the USA National Clearing house for Alcohol and Drug Information as being "scientifically accurate, in conformance with public health principles and policies and appropriate for the intended audience." It is distributed by by the Centre for Educational Media and affiliated with Free Teens USA, Inc, a nonprofit, educational organisation.

Mr Panzer is now willing to come and conduct similar training workshops to Zambia. I am therefore looking for organisations to sponsor and host this workshop. One of the conditions is that workshop has to be attended by 75 particpants who will include students, youth and community leaders and parents. Those organisations who would like to host this workshop can get in touch with me for all the details and other educational and promotional materials which I have received from Mr Panzer. I have already prepared a proposal which justifes the need for this workshop and this is available to any organisation that would like to use it to solicit for material and financial support. For details, I may be contacted at the following address:

University of Zambia,
University Main Library,
PO Box 32379,Lusaka
Tel: 250845 (Work); Fax: 250845 (Work)
DChipoya@library.unza.zm

Your cooperation in ensuring that this workshop is hosted in our country will go a long way in preventing premature pregnancies in our teens -- Douglas M. Chipoya,Youth Activist.

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Last updated February 13, 1998

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